C202008041945: Book Notes from Philosophical Investigation Source: * Book : Philosophical Investigations by [[0_PARA/💡 Resources & Themes/Wittgenstein/Ludwig Wittgenstein]] The book was published In 1945. Part 1. * 11. - Think of words like the different tools in a tool box. But the tools in the tool box look different, and we can diverse the different function. But words look uniform in appearance. Their functions are not clearly seen. * "Think of the tools in a tool-box: there is a hammer, pliers, a saw, a screw-driver, a rule, a glue-pot, glue, nails and screws.—The functions of words are as diverse as the functions of these objects. (And in both cases there are similarities.) * Of course, what confuses us is the uniform appearance of words when we hear them spoken or meet them in script and print. For their application is not presented to us so clearly. Especially when we are doing philosophy” page 6. * 12. Different words have different functions. Like the different kind of handles in a train. * "12. It is like looking into the cabin of a locomotive. We see handles all looking more or less alike. (Naturally, since they are all supposed to be handled.) But one is the handle of a crank which can be moved continuously (it regulates the opening of a valve); another is the handle of a switch, which has only two effective positions, it is either off or on; a third is the handle of a brake-lever, the harder one pulls on it, the harder it brakes; a fourth, the handle of a pump: it has an effect only so long as it is moved to and fro.” - page 6 * 15 - Naming something is like attaching a label to a thing. But what if there is no such thing? Did we just create this thing into existence? * "The word "to signify" is perhaps used in the most straight- forward way when the object signified is marked with the sign. Suppose that the tools A uses in building bear certain marks. When A shews his assistant such a mark, he brings the tool that has that mark on it. It is in this and more or less similar ways that a name means and is given to a thing.—It will often prove useful in philosophy to say to ourselves: naming something is like attaching a label to a thing.” Page 6 * 17 - In language there are different kinds of word, that serve different functions like a tool. We decide how to group them, based on how we classify them (and we manipulate them like chess pieces) * "17. It will be possible to say: In language (8) we have different kinds of word. For the functions of the word "slab" and the word "block" are more alike than those of "slab" and "d". But how we group words into kinds will depend on the aim of the classification,—and on our own inclination. * Think of the different points of view from which one can classify tools or chess-men.” Page 8 * 18 - In the world of language, think of if like an ancient city with maze of little streets and squares, of old and new houses, and new developments in the cities from different period. It is constantly developing. It’s not done. * "18. Do not be troubled by the fact that languages (2) and (8) consist only of orders. If you want to say that this shews them to be incomplete, ask yourself whether our language is complete;—whether it was so before the symbolism of chemistry and the notation of the infinitesimal calculus were incorporated in it; for these are, so to speak, suburbs of our language. (And how many houses or streets does it take before a town begins to be a town?) Our language can be seen as an ancient city: a maze of little streets and squares, of old and new houses, and of houses with additions from various periods; and this surrounded by a multitude of new boroughs with straight regular" * 18 - Think of certain lingos or parlance like different suburbs in the language world. In the neighbourhood of psychology for example, there are different way of speaking, then in other neighbourhood. * "18. Do not be troubled by the fact that languages (2) and (8) consist only of orders. If you want to say that this shews them to be incomplete, ask yourself whether our language is complete;—whether it was so before the symbolism of chemistry and the notation of the infinitesimal calculus were incorporated in it; for these are, so to speak, suburbs of our language. (And how many houses or streets does it take before a town begins to be a town?) Our language can be seen as an ancient city: a maze of little streets and squares, of old and new houses, and of houses with additions from various periods; and this surrounded by a multitude of new boroughs with straight regular" * 21 - Example of language game. A phrase with the same words, when spoken in different tone or manner can have different functions e.g To report, To command, To ask a question. Certain arrangement (or forms) of words can look like a questions. “Isn’t the weather glorious today.”, but some sentence can look like a form of questions, but function like a command. What decide what form sentence function? * "21. Imagine a language-game in which A asks and B reports the number of slabs or blocks in a pile, or the colours and shapes of the building-stones that are stacked in such-and-such a place.—Such a report might run: "Five slabs". Now what is the difference between the report or statement "Five slabs" and the order "Five slabs!"?— Well, it is the part which uttering these words plays in the language- game. No doubt the tone of voice and the look with which they are uttered, and much else besides, will also be different. But we could also imagine the tone's being the same—for an order and a report can be spoken in a variety of tones of voice and with various expressions of face—the difference being only in the application. (Of course, we might use the words "statement" and "command" to stand for grammatical forms of sentence and intonations; we do in fact call "Isn't the weather glorious to-day?" a question, although it is used as a statement.) We could imagine a language in which all statements had the form and tone of rhetorical questions; or every command the form of the question "Would you like to . . .?". Perhaps it will then be said: "What he says has the form of a question but is really a command",— that is, has the function of a command in the technique of using the language. (Similarly one says "You will do this" not as a prophecy but as a command. What makes it the one or the other?)" * 23 — Language is a game. Think of the different form of communication (speaking) like coding. Each code have different functions. Like giving orders, obeying them, Reporting an event. Singing. Making a joke. Forming and testing a hypothesis.. * 23. But how many kinds of sentence are there? Say assertion, question, and command?—There are countless kinds: countless different kinds of use of what we call "symbols", "words", "sentences". And this multiplicity is not something fixed, given once for all; but new types of language, new language-games, as we may say, come into existence, and others become obsolete and get forgotten. (We can get a rough picture of this from the changes in mathematics.) Here the term "language-game" is meant to bring into prominence the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or of a form of life. * Review the multiplicity of language-games in the following examples, and in others: * Giving orders, and obeying them— * Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)— Reporting an event— * Speculating about an event—Forming and testing a hypothesis— * Presenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagrams— Making up a story; and reading it— * Play-acting— * Singing catches— * Guessing riddles— * Making a joke; telling it— * Solving a problem in practical arithmetic— * Translating from one language into another— * Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, praying. * —It is interesting to compare the multiplicity of the tools in language and of the ways they are used, the multiplicity of kinds of word and sentence, with what logicians have said about the structure of language. (Including the author of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.} * 24 - Remember the different functions in Language Game, so you know if the sentence is a description of something, a cry for help? * "24. If you do not keep the multiplicity of language-games in view you will perhaps be inclined to ask questions like: "What is a question?" —Is it the statement that I do not know such-and-such, or the state- ment that I wish the other person would tell me . . . .? Or is it the description of my mental state of uncertainty?—And is the cry "Help!" such a description?"